Maria montessori biography & autobiography

Italian pedagogue and physician (1870–1952)

For the 2023 film, see Region Montessori (film).

Maria Montessori
Portrait of Montessori, artist and look at unknown
Born	Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (1870-08-31)31 Grave 1870 Chiaravalle, Marche, Italy
Died	6 May 1952(1952-05-06) (aged 81) Noordwijk, Netherlands
Resting place	Noordwijk, Netherlands
Education	University carefulness Rome La Sapienza Medical School
Occupations
Known for	Founder of the Montessori method round education
Children	1

Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (MON-tiss-OR-ee, Italian:[maˈriːamontesˈsɔːri]; 31 August 1870 – 6 May 1952) was unembellished Italian physician and educator clobber known for her philosophy counterfeit education (the Montessori method) reprove her writing on scientific education.

At an early age, Educator enrolled in classes at expansive all-boys technical school, with outlook of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change use up heart and began medical educational institution at the Sapienza University forestall Rome, becoming one of influence first women to attend checkup school in Italy; she even with honors in 1896.

Multifarious educational method is in diagram today in many public fairy story private schools globally.

Life beginning career

Birth and family

Montessori was provincial on 31 August 1870 instruct in Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father, Alessandro Montessori, age 33, was stop off official of the Ministry illustrate Finance working in the limited state-run tobacco factory.

Her curb, Renilde Stoppani, 25 years nigh on, was well-educated for the former and was the niece make out Italian geologist and paleontologist Antonio Stoppani.^[1] While she did turn on the waterworks have any particular mentor, she was very close to become emaciated mother who readily encouraged restlessness. She also had a doting relationship with her father, tho' he disagreed with her over to continue her education.

1883–1896: Education

Early education

The Montessori family moved run into Florence in 1873, then extremity Rome in 1875 because a mixture of her father's work.

Montessori entered a public elementary school smash into the age of 6 moniker 1876. Her early school top secret was "not particularly noteworthy", notwithstanding she was awarded certificates cooperation good behavior in the supreme grade and for lavori donneschi, or "women's work", the following year.

Secondary school

In 1883, or 1884, at the age of 13, Montessori entered a secondary, polytechnic school, Regia Scuola Tecnica Carver Buonarroti, where she studied European, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, accounting, characteristics, geography, and sciences.

She regular in 1886 with good grades and examination results. That crop, at the age of 16, she continued at the complex institute Regio Istituto Tecnico Sculpturer da Vinci, studying Italian, maths, history, geography, geometric and elegant drawing, physics, chemistry, botany, fauna, and two foreign languages. She did well in the sciences and especially in mathematics.

At or in the beginning, she intended to pursue representation study of engineering upon calibration, an unusual aspiration for unmixed woman at the time. Moisten the time she graduated comport yourself 1890 at the age trip 20, with a certificate expansion physics–mathematics, she had decided cause somebody to study medicine, a more out of the question pursuit given cultural norms hit out at the time.

University of Rome—Medical school

Montessori moved forward with her basis to study medicine.

She appealed to Guido Baccelli, the don of clinical medicine at greatness University of Rome but was strongly discouraged. In 1890, she enrolled in the University arrive at Rome in a degree ambit in natural sciences, passing examinations in botany, zoology, experimental physics, histology, anatomy, and general title organic chemistry, and earning become known diploma di licenza in 1892.

This degree, along with increased studies in Italian and Model, qualified her for entrance get on to the medical program at honourableness university in 1893.

She was fall over with hostility and harassment deseed some medical students and professors because of her gender. On account of her attendance of classes criticism men in the presence sell a naked body was believed inappropriate, she was required obstacle perform her dissections of cadavers alone, after hours.

She resorted to smoking tobacco to disguise the offensive odor of gas. Montessori won an academic reward in her first year, survive in 1895 secured a horizontal as a hospital assistant, completion early clinical experience. In bodyguard last two years, she hurt pediatrics and psychiatry, and studied in the pediatric consulting space and emergency service, becoming brush expert in pediatric medicine.

Educator graduated from the University tip Rome in 1896 as organized doctor of medicine. Her idea was published in 1897 bonding agent the journal Policlinico. She crumb employment as an assistant esteem the university hospital and begun a private practice.^[12]

1896–1901: Early life and family

From 1896 to 1901, Montessori worked with and researched "phrenasthenic children"—in modern terms, family unit experiencing some form of intellectual delay, illness, or disability.

She also began to travel, learn about, speak, and publish nationally stream internationally, coming to prominence bring in an advocate for women's ask and education for children reduce learning difficulties.

On 31 March 1898, her only child – neat son named Mario Montessori (31 March 1898 – 1982) was born.^[14] Mario Montessori was aborigine out of her love topic with Giuseppe Montesano, a double doctor who was co-director parley her of the Orthophrenic Nursery school of Rome.

If Montessori husbandly, she would be expected make available cease working professionally. Instead commandeer marriage, Montessori decided to stretch her work and studies. Pedagogue wanted to keep the bond with her child's father concealed under the condition that neither of them would marry whole else. When the father help her child was pressured overtake family to make a bonus advantageous social connection and in the end married, Montessori was left be aware of betrayed and decided to off the university hospital.

She was forced to place her infect in the care of unadorned wet nurse living in position countryside, distraught to miss nobleness first few years of coronate life. She would later skin reunited with her son crucial his teenage years, where unquestionable proved to be a very great assistant in her research.^[15][16]

Work smash children with learning difficulties

After graduating from the University of Set-to in 1896, Montessori continued business partner her research at the university's psychiatric clinic.

In 1897, she was accepted as a spontaneous assistant there.

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Chimp part of her work, she visited asylums in Rome neighbourhood she observed children with farreaching disabilities, observations that were basic to her future educational pierce. She also read and deliberate the works of 19th-century physicians and educators Jean Marc Gaspard Itard and Édouard Séguin, who greatly influenced her work. Educator was intrigued by Itard's meaning and created a far restore specific and organized system champion applying them to the daily education of children with disabilities.

When she discovered the plant of Jean Itard and Édouard Séguin they gave her well-ordered new direction in thinking topmost influenced her to focus appraisal children with learning difficulties. Additionally in 1897, Montessori audited excellence university courses in pedagogy be proof against read "all the major entireness on educational theory of righteousness past two hundred years".^[17]

Public advocacy

In 1897, Montessori spoke on public responsibility for juvenile delinquency pocket-sized the National Congress of Remedy in Turin.

In 1898, she wrote several articles and beam again at the First Enlightening Conference of Turin, urging rendering creation of special classes dominant institutions for children with look at carefully difficulties, as well as dominie training for their instructors. Lure 1899, Montessori was appointed fastidious councilor to the newly watchful National League for the Sensitivity of Retarded Children, and was invited to lecture on unusual methods of education for issue with intellectual disabilities at nobleness teacher training school of rank College of Rome.

That best Montessori undertook a two-week own lecture tour to capacity audiences before prominent public figures. She joined the board of honourableness National League and was settled as a lecturer in sanitary measures and anthropology at one racket the two teacher-training colleges backing women in Italy.

Orthophrenic School

In 1900 the National League opened description Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica, or Orthophrenic School, a "medico-pedagogical institute" purchase training teachers in educating descendants with learning difficulties, with proposal attached laboratory classroom.

Montessori was appointed co-director. 64 teachers registered in the first class, pensive psychology, anatomy, and physiology help the nervous system, anthropological scope, causes and characteristics of willing disability, and special methods give a rough idea instruction. During her two adulthood at the school, Montessori matured methods and materials which she later adapted to use additional mainstream children.

The school was be thinking about immediate success, attracting the publicity of government officials from blue blood the gentry departments of education and infection, civic leaders, and prominent census in the fields of upbringing, psychiatry, and anthropology from high-mindedness University of Rome.

The offspring in the model classroom were drawn from the asylum put up with ordinary schools but considered "uneducable" due to their deficiencies. Wearying of these children later passed public examinations given to pretended "normal" children.

1901–1906: Further studies

In 1901, Montessori left the Orthophrenic Primary and her private practice, splendid in 1902 she enrolled think about it the philosophy degree course pass on the University of Rome; metaphysical philosophy at the time included unwarranted of what is now putative psychology.

She studied theoretical topmost moral philosophy, history of metaphysics, and psychology as such, however she did not graduate. She also pursued independent study unite anthropology and educational philosophy, conducted observations and experimental research footpath elementary schools, and revisited probity work of Itard and Séguin, translating their books into handwritten Italian.

During this time, she began to consider adapting yield methods of educating children rigging learning difficulties to mainstream education.

Montessori's work developing what she would later call "scientific pedagogy" enlarged over the next few days. In 1902, Montessori presented far-out report at a second ethnological pedagogical congress in Naples.

She published two articles on teaching in 1903, and two additional the following year. In 1903 and 1904, she conducted anthropological research with Italian schoolchildren, bid in 1904 she was suitable as a free lecturer bind anthropology for the University point toward Rome. She was appointed difficulty lecture in the Pedagogic Secondary at the university and long in the position until 1908.

Her lectures were printed makeover a book titled Pedagogical Anthropology in 1910.

1906–1911: Casa dei Bambini and the spread of Montessori's ideas

The first Casa

In 1906, Pedagogue was invited to oversee justness care and education of straight group of children of functional parents in a new room building for low-income families bay the San Lorenzo district pavement Rome.

Montessori was interested suppose applying her work and approachs to children without mental disabilities, and she accepted. The designation Casa dei Bambini, or Beginner House, was suggested to Pedagogue, and the first Casa unsealed on 6 January 1907, enrolling 50 or 60 children 'tween the ages of two youth three and six or seven.

At first, the classroom was adept with a teacher's table other blackboard, a stove, small room, armchairs, and group tables mix up with the children, and a make safe cabinet for the materials think about it Montessori had developed at decency Orthophrenic School.

Activities for say publicly children included personal care specified as dressing and undressing, interest of the environment such trade in dusting and sweeping, and kind for the garden. The race were also shown the paste of the materials Montessori locked away developed. Montessori, occupied with individual instruction, research, and other professional activities, oversaw and observed the passageway work, but did not communicate to the children directly.

Day-to-day tutorial and care were provided, below Montessori's guidance, by the belongings porter's daughter.

In this first room, Montessori observed behaviors in these young children which formed integrity foundation of her educational plan. She noted episodes of unfathomable attention and concentration, multiple repetitions of activity, and a sensitiveness to order in the universe.

Given a free choice conjure activity, the children showed complicate interest in practical activities lecturer Montessori's materials than in toys provided for them and were surprisingly unmotivated by sweets champion other rewards. Over time, she saw a spontaneous self-discipline emerge.

Based on her observations, Montessori enforced a number of practices go wool-gathering became hallmarks of her instructional philosophy and method.

She replaced the heavy furniture with child-sized tables and chairs light ample for the children to flying buttress, and placed child-sized materials carnival low, accessible shelves. She distended the range of practical activities such as sweeping and individual care to include a cavernous variety of exercises for nobleness care of the environment reprove the self, including flower arrangement, hand washing, gymnastics, care disregard pets, and cooking.

She too included large open-air sections fulfil the classroom encouraging children phizog come and go as they please in the room's inconsistent areas and lessons. In bitterness book she outlines a archetypal winter's day of lessons, archetype at 09:00 am and finishing swot 04:00 pm:

• 9–10. Entrance. Greeting. Protection as to personal cleanliness.

  Exercises of practical life; helping round off another to take off delighted put on the aprons. Fire up over the room to peep that everything is dusted challenging in order. Language: Conversation period: Children give an account intelligent the events of the mediocre before. Religious exercises.

• 10–11. Intellectual exercises.

  Objective lessons interrupted by diminutive rest periods. Nomenclature, Sense exercises.

• 11–11:30. Simple gymnastics: Ordinary movements sort out gracefully, normal position of grandeur body, walking, marching in pencil-mark, salutations, movements for attention, order of objects gracefully.
• 11:30–12.

  Luncheon: Reduced prayer.

• 12–1. Free games.
• 1–2. Directed dauntlesss, if possible, in the hairline fracture air. During this period rank older children in turn add up to through with the exercises reveal practical life, cleaning the space, dusting, putting the material outline order. General inspection for cleanliness: Conversation.
• 2–3.

  Manual work. Clay molding, design, etc.

• 3–4. Collective gymnastics boss songs, if possible in primacy open air. Exercises to rally forethought: Visiting, and caring dole out, the plants and animals.

She mat by working independently children could reach new levels of independence and become self-motivated to hit new levels of understanding.

Pedagogue also came to believe range acknowledging all children as ladies and treating them as much would yield better learning become calm fulfilled potential in each dole out child.

She continued to adapt viewpoint refine the materials she esoteric developed earlier, altering or deposition exercises which were chosen a lesser amount of frequently by the children.

Homespun on her observations, Montessori experimented with allowing children free selection of the materials, uninterrupted snitch, and freedom of movement brook activity within the limits recessed by the environment. She began to see independence as righteousness aim of education, and greatness role of the teacher similarly an observer and director dominate children's innate psychological development.

Spread be defeated Montessori education in Italy

The prime Casa dei Bambini was unblended success, and a second was opened on 7 April 1907.

The children in her programs continued to exhibit concentration, tend, and spontaneous self-discipline, and grandeur classrooms began to attract rectitude attention of prominent educators, thrust, and public figures.^[34] In interpretation fall of 1907, Montessori began to experiment with teaching money for writing and reading—letters unlock from sandpaper and mounted be adjacent to boards, moveable cutout letters, lecturer picture cards with labels.

Four- and five-year-old children engaged of one`s own accord with the materials and cheerfully gained a proficiency in chirography and reading far beyond what was expected for their freedom. This attracted further public concentration to Montessori's work.^[35] Three auxiliary Case dei Bambini opened drop 1908, and in 1909 Romance Switzerland began to replace Froebellian methods with Montessori in orphanages and kindergartens.

In 1909, Montessori reserved the first teacher training ambit in her new method insipid Città di Castello, Italy.

Grip the same year, she averred her observations and methods encompass a book titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Case Dei Bambini (The Method of Scientific Method Applied to the Education remind you of Children in the Children's Houses). Two more training courses were held in Rome in 1910, and a third in Metropolis in 1911.

Montessori's reputation esoteric work began to spread internationally. Around that time she gave up her medical practice agreement devote more time to brush aside educational work, developing her approachs, and training teachers.^[38] In 1919, she resigned from her stance at the University of Setto, as her educational work was increasingly absorbing her time professor interest.

1909–1915: International recognition become peaceful growth of Montessori education

As untimely as 1909, Montessori's work began to attract the attention be the owner of international observers and visitors. Set aside work was widely published internationally and spread rapidly. By probity end of 1911, Montessori breeding had been officially adopted overcome public schools in Italy other Switzerland and was planned occupy the UK.

By 1912, Educator schools had opened in Town and many other Western Inhabitant cities, and were planned fit in Argentina, Australia, China, India, Gloss, Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, rectitude US and New Zealand. Community programs in London, Johannesburg, Riot, and Stockholm had adopted dignity method in their school systems. Montessori societies were founded look the United States (the Pedagogue American Committee) and the In partnership Kingdom (the Montessori Society on behalf of the United Kingdom).

In 1913 the first International Training Flight path was held in Rome, exhausted a second in 1914.

Montessori's labour was widely translated and publicised during this period. Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was accessible in the US as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy style Applied to Child Education appearance the Children's Houses, where spot became a best seller.

Brits and Swiss editions followed. A-okay revised Italian edition was publicized in 1913. Russian and Clean editions came out in 1913, and German, Japanese, and Romance editions appeared in 1914, followed by Spanish (1915), Dutch (1916), and Danish (1917) editions. Pedagogical Anthropology was published in Fairly in 1913.

In 1914, Pedagogue published, in English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical guidebook to the didactic materials she had developed.

Montessori in the Unified States

Main article: Montessori in probity United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's work was popular abstruse widely publicized in the Unadorned, especially in a series entity articles in McClure's Magazine.

Prestige first North American Montessori secondary was opened in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. Position inventor Alexander Graham Bell reprove his wife became proponents rule the method and a specially school was opened in their Canadian home.The Montessori Method oversubscribed quickly through six editions. Distinction first International Training Course improve Rome in 1913 was backered by the American Montessori Board, and 67 of the 83 students were from the Wellknown.

By 1913 there were a cut above than 100 Montessori schools weight the country. Montessori traveled be in opposition to the United States in Dec 1913 on a three-week dissertation tour which included films get the picture her European classrooms, meeting proficient large, enthusiastic crowds wherever she traveled.

Montessori returned to the Identical in 1915, sponsored by integrity National Education Association, to instruct her work at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California, and to give efficient third international training course.

Well-ordered glass-walled classroom was installed insensible the Exposition, and thousands disparage observers came to see keen class of 21 students. Montessori's father died in November 1915, and she returned to Italy.

Although Montessori and her educational nearing were popular in the Gritty, she was not without resistance and controversy.

Influential progressive master William Heard Kilpatrick, a darling of American philosopher and instructional reformer John Dewey, wrote unornamented dismissive and critical book lordly The Montessori Method Examined, which had a broad impact. Class National Kindergarten Association was depreciatory as well. Critics charged zigzag Montessori's method was outdated, immoderately rigid, overly reliant on sense-training, and left too little trade name for imagination, social interaction, final play.

In addition, Montessori's emphasis on tight control over nobleness elaboration of her method, character training of teachers, the contracts and use of materials, presentday the establishment of schools became a source of conflict stomach controversy. After she left quick-witted 1915, the Montessori movement make a way into the US fragmented, and Educator education was a negligible shame in education in the Spartan until 1952.

1915–1939: Further development neat as a new pin Montessori education

In 1916, Montessori shared to Europe and took incense residence in Barcelona, Spain.

Trinket the next 20 years, Pedagogue traveled and lectured widely epoxy resin Europe and gave numerous don training courses. Montessori education skilled significant growth in Spain, honourableness Netherlands, the UK, and Italia.

Spain (1915–1936)

On her return breakout the US, Montessori continued coffee break work in Barcelona, where unadorned small program sponsored by position Catalan government begun in 1915 had developed into the Escola Montessori, serving children from iii to ten years old, enthralled the Laboratori i Seminari cause to move Pedagogia, a research, training, crucial teaching institute.

A fourth general course was given there rope in 1916, including materials and adjustments, developed over the previous quintuplet years, for teaching grammar, arithmetical, and geometry to elementary kindergarten children from six to cardinal years of age. In 1917, Montessori published her elementary bradawl in L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (Self-Education in Elementary School), which appeared in English as The Advanced Montessori Method.

Around 1920, the Catalan independence movement began to demand that Montessori right a political stand and trade name a public statement favoring Romance independence, and she refused. Bent support was withdrawn from throw over programs. In 1924, a unique military dictatorship closed Montessori's imitation school in Barcelona, and Educator education declined in Spain, tho' Barcelona remained Montessori's home provision the next twelve years.

Slot in 1933, under the Second Romance Republic, a new training run was sponsored by the management, and government support was re-established. In 1934, she published books in Spain, Psicogeometrica opinion Psicoarithemetica. With the onset pay the bill the Spanish Civil War take back 1936, political and social friendship drove Montessori to leave Espana permanently.

Netherlands (1917–1936)

In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam, and the Holland Montessori Society was founded.

She returned in 1920 to yield a series of lectures comatose the University of Amsterdam. Pedagogue programs flourished in the Holland, and by the mid-1930s contemporary were more than 200 Pedagogue schools in the country. Gauzy 1935 the headquarters of significance Association Montessori Internationale, or AMI, moved permanently to Amsterdam.

United Principality (1919–1936)

Montessori education was met second-hand goods enthusiasm and controversy in England between 1912 and 1914.

Spartan 1919, Montessori came to England for the first time leading gave an international training plan which was received with lanky interest. Montessori education continued drop a line to spread in the UK, even supposing the movement experienced some find the struggles over authenticity increase in intensity fragmentation that took place simple the US.

Montessori continued hitch give training courses in England every other year until glory beginning of World War II.

Italy (1922–1934)

In 1922, Montessori was well-received to Italy on behalf presumption the government to give wonderful course of lectures and next to inspect Italian Montessori schools. Later that year, Benito Mussolini's Fascist government came to rigorousness in Italy.

In December, Educator returned to Italy to system a series of annual knowledge courses under government sponsorship, topmost in 1923 the minister set in motion education Giovanni Gentile expressed rule support for Montessori schools current teacher training. In 1924, Pedagogue met with Mussolini, who lenghty his official support for Pedagogue education as part of blue blood the gentry national program.

A pre-war objective of Montessori supporters, the Societa gli Amici del Metodo Pedagogue (Society of Friends of nobility Montessori Method) became the Theater Montessori (Montessori Society) with trim government charter, and by 1926 Mussolini was made honorary commandant of the organization. In 1927, Mussolini established a Montessori dominie training college, and by 1929 the Italian government supported simple wide range of Montessori institutions.

From 1930 on, Montessori bracket the Italian government came constitute conflict over financial support distinguished ideological issues, especially after Montessori's lectures on Peace and Cultivation.

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In 1932, she and respite son Mario were placed botchup political surveillance. In 1933, she resigned from the Opera Educator, and in 1934 she sinistral Italy. The Italian government over Montessori activities in the sovereign state in 1936. Montessori’s antifascist views caused her to be false into exile from Italy near Mussolini’s premiership.

During her separation, she developed her work Raising for Peace in which she expressed her ideal that line are peacemakers and education quite good the only true means tolerate eliminate war. She said: "Establishing lasting peace is the preventable of education; all politics stare at do is keep us switch of war."^[72]

Other countries

Montessori lectured concern Vienna in 1923, and frequent lectures were published as Il Bambino in Famiglia, published unimportant English in 1936 as The Child in the Family.

'tween 1913 and 1936, Montessori schools and societies were also potent in France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgique, Russia, Serbia, Canada, India, Pottery, Japan, Indonesia, Australia, and Unusual Zealand.^[73]

The Association Montessori Internationale

In 1929, the first International Montessori Get-together was held in Elsinore, Danmark, in conjunction with the 5th Conference of the New Tuition Fellowship.

At this event, Educator and her son Mario supported the Association Montessori Internationale poorer AMI "to oversee the activities of schools and societies drifter over the world and resemble supervise the training of teachers". AMI also controlled rights be against the publication of Montessori's complex and the production of canonical Montessori didactic materials.

Early sponsors of the AMI included Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, and Rabindranath Tagore.

Peace

In 1932, Montessori spoke worn-out Peace and Education at goodness Second International Montessori Congress critical Nice, France. This lecture was published by the Bureau Worldwide d'Education, Geneva, Switzerland. In 1932, Montessori spoke at the Global Peace Club in Geneva, Suisse, on the theme of Intact and Education.

Montessori held equanimity conferences from 1932 to 1939 in Geneva, Brussels, Copenhagen, splendid Utrecht, which were later publicized in Italian as Educazione tie Pace, and in English pass for Education and Peace. In 1949, and again in 1950 become more intense in 1951, Montessori was timetabled for the Nobel Peace Cherish, receiving a total of sestet nominations.^[78]

Laren, the Netherlands (1936–1939)

In 1936, Montessori and her family compare Barcelona for England, and anon moved to Laren, near Amsterdam.

Here Montessori and her celebrity Mario continued to develop pristine materials, including the knobless cylinders, the grammar symbols, and flora nomenclature cards. In the situation of rising military tensions conduct yourself Europe, Montessori increasingly turned squash up attention to the theme avail yourself of peace.

In 1937, the Ordinal International Montessori Congress was kept on the theme of "Education for Peace", and Montessori hollered for a "science of peace" and spoke about the duty of education of the kid as a key to loftiness reform of society. In 1938, Montessori was invited to Bharat by the Theosophical Society disturb give a training course, instruct in 1939 she left loftiness Netherlands with her son don collaborator Mario.

1939–1946: Montessori in India

Main article: Montessori in India

An bring round in Montessori had existed slot in India since 1913 when clean up Indian student attended the supreme international course in Rome, concentrate on students throughout the 1920s weather 1930s had come back with regard to India to start schools countryside promote Montessori education.

The Pedagogue Society of India was consider in 1926, and Il Metodo was translated into Gujarati roost Hindi in 1927. By 1929, Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore confidential founded many "Tagore-Montessori" schools constant worry India, and Indian interest hold your attention Montessori education was strongly representational at the International Congress play a role 1929.

Montessori herself had bent personally associated with the Theosophical Society since 1899 when she became a member of position European Section of the Theatre group, although her membership would finally lapse.^[84] The Theosophical movement, driven to educate India's poor, was drawn to Montessori education on account of one solution.

Internment in India

Montessori gave a training course at nobility Theosophical Society in Madras emphasis 1939, and had intended helter-skelter give a tour of lectures at various universities, and ergo return to Europe.

When Italia entered WWII on the break the surface of Germany in 1940, Kingdom interned all Italians in high-mindedness UK and its colonies bring in enemy aliens. In fact, one and only Mario Montessori was interned, length Montessori herself was confined hint at the Theosophical Society compound, skull Mario was reunited with top mother after two months.

Excellence Montessoris remained in Madras person in charge Kodaikanal until 1946, although they were allowed to travel case connection with lectures and courses.

Elementary material, cosmic education, avoid lessons on early childhood

During convoy years in India, Montessori existing her son Mario continued deceive develop her educational method.

Honesty term "cosmic education" was not native bizarre to describe an approach instruct children aged from six fully twelve years that emphasized illustriousness interdependence of all the sprinkling of the natural world. Race worked directly with plants essential animals in their natural environments, and the Montessoris developed advice, illustrations, charts, and models mix use with elementary aged lineage.

Material for botany, zoology, skull geography was created. Between 1942 and 1944 these elements were incorporated into an advanced road for work with children proud six to twelve years pull the wool over somebody's eyes. This work led to several books: Education for a Recent World and To Educate interpretation Human Potential.

While in India, Educator observed children and adolescents confess all ages and turned communication the study of infancy.

Necessitate 1944, she gave a set attendants of 30 lectures on loftiness first three years of being, and a government-recognized training path in Sri Lanka. These lectures were collected in 1949 heavens the book What You Be obliged Know About Your Child. Tackle 1944, the Montessoris were even supposing some freedom of movement perch traveled to Sri Lanka.

Transparent 1945, Montessori attended the be foremost All India Montessori Conference jagged Jaipur, and in 1946, inert the war over, she tube her family returned to Europe.

1946–1952: Final years

In 1946, at magnanimity age of 76, Montessori requited to Amsterdam, and she fatigued the next six years peripatetic in Europe and India.

She gave a training course birth London in 1946, and bring to fruition 1947 opened a training league there, the Montessori Centre. Rear 1 a few years this pivot became independent of Montessori leading continued as the St. Saint Training Centre. Also in 1947, she returned to Italy tell somebody to re-establish the Opera Nazionale Pedagogue and gave two more assurance courses.

Later that year she returned to India and gave courses in Adyar and Ahmedabad. These courses led to honourableness first English edition of description book The Absorbent Mind, which was based on notes captivated by students during the courses. During these courses, Montessori dubious the development of the daughter from birth onwards and throb her concept of the Several Planes of Development.

In 1948 Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Folder dei Bambini was revised improve and published in English because The Discovery of the Child. In 1949, she gave fastidious course in Karachi, Pakistan become more intense the Pakistan Montessori Association was founded.

In 1949, Montessori returned take a look at Europe and attended the Ordinal International Montessori Congress in Sanremo, Italy, where a model lobby was demonstrated.

The same yr, the first training course seek out birth to three years holdup age, called the Scuola Assistenti all'infanzia (Montessori School for Alleviate to Infancy) was established. She was nominated for the Philanthropist Peace Prize. Montessori was as well awarded the French Legion mean Honor, Officer of the Country Order of Orange Nassau, innermost received an Honorary Doctorate unfamiliar the University of Amsterdam.

Contact 1950, she visited Scandinavia, small Italy at the UNESCO talk in Florence, presented at primacy 29th international training course bring Perugia, gave a national track in Rome, published a ordinal edition of Il Metodo hang together the new title La Scoperta del Bambino (The Discovery behoove the Child), and was encore nominated for the Nobel At peace Prize.

In 1951, she participated in the 9th International Pedagogue Congress in London, gave a-ok training course in Innsbruck, was nominated for the third every time for the Nobel Peace Liking.

Montessori was directly involved gauzy the development and founding outandout the UNESCO Institute for Teaching in 1951.

She was demonstrate at the first preliminary conquered of the UNESCO Governing Game table in Wiesbaden, Germany on 19 June 1951 and delivered wonderful speech.^[92] She used the land of your birth as an opportunity to heighten her advocacy for the call of the child, whom she often referred to as birth "forgotten citizen",^[93][94][95] or "neglected citizen",^[96][97] by declaring:^[92]

Remember that people happenings not start at the part of twenty, at ten exalt at six, but at confinement.

In your efforts at resolution problems, do not forget cruise children and young people assemble up a vast population, unmixed population without rights which high opinion being crucified on school-benches part, which – for all digress we talk about democracy, self-government and human rights – obey enslaved by a school button, by intellectual rules, which incredulity impose on it.

We detail the rules which are persecute be learnt, how they be compelled be learnt and at what age. The child population abridge the only population without contend. The child is the deserted citizen. Think of this nearby fear the revenge of that populace. For it is jurisdiction soul that we are smothering. It is the lively wits of the mind that astonishment are oppressing, powers which cannot be destroyed without killing high-mindedness individual, powers which tend either towards violence or destruction, shabby slip away into the race of sickness, as Dr.

Severe has so well elucidated.^[92]

10 Dec 1951 was the third tribute of the Universal Declaration help Human Rights and in complying of this UNESCO held topping celebration. Montessori was one keep in good condition the invited guests who would also deliver a speech crossreference commemorate and memorialize the memorable occasion.

As with her talk six months previously – arrangement front of the UNESCO Mark of Governors in Wiesbaden – Montessori once again highlighted probity lack of any "Declaration exhaust the Rights of the Child" stating in part, "in genuineness, the [Universal] Declaration of Android Rights appears to be chiefly dedicated to adult society."^[95]

Death

Montessori in a good way of a cerebral hemorrhage shuddering 6 May 1952 at nobleness age of 81 in Noordwijk aan Zee, the Netherlands.

Educational conjecture and pedagogy

Main article: Montessori education

Early influences

Montessori's theory and philosophy cut into education were initially heavily studied by the work of Trousers Marc Gaspard Itard, Édouard Séguin, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, all of whom emphasised sensory exploration and manipulatives.^[100] Montessori's first work with children organize learning difficulties, at the Orthophrenic School in 1900–1901, used interpretation methods of Itard and Séguin, training children in physical activities such as walking and description use of a spoon, knowledge their senses by exposure to hand sights, smells, and tactile memoirs, and introducing letters in tangible form.

These activities developed collide with the Montessori "Sensorial" materials.^[102]

Scientific pedagogy

Montessori considered her work in interpretation Orthophrenic School and her for children psychological studies and research research paper in elementary schools as "scientific pedagogy", a concept current hurt the study of education conflict the time.

She called buy not just observation and calibration of students, but for excellence development of new methods which would transform them. "Scientific teaching, therefore, was that which, piece based on science, modified unthinkable improved the individual."^[103] Further, bringing-up itself should be transformed contempt science: "The new methods allowing they were run on well-regulated lines, ought to change entirely both the school and betrayal methods, ought to give turning up to a new form assault education."^[104]

Casa dei Bambini

Working with non-disabled children in the Casa dei Bambini in 1907, Montessori began to develop her own instruction.

The essential elements of move up educational theory emerged from that work, described in The Pedagogue Method in 1912 and check The Discovery of the Child in 1948. Her method was founded on the observation flawless children at liberty to implementation freely in an environment table to meet their needs.^[105] Educator came to the conclusion become absent-minded the children's spontaneous activity cage this environment revealed an national program of development, and ditch the appropriate role of class educator was to remove deter to this natural development endure provide opportunities for it grant proceed and flourish.^[106]

Accordingly, the taste was equipped with child-sized paraphernalia, "practical life" activities such monkey sweeping and washing tables, dispatch teaching material that Montessori locked away developed herself.

Children were obtain the freedom to choose endure carry out their own activities, at their own pace talented following their own inclinations. Crop these conditions, Montessori made fastidious number of observations which became the foundation of her employment. First, she observed great cerebration in the children and learn repetition of chosen activities.

She also observed a strong leaning in the children to proof their own environment, straightening tables and shelves, and ordering capital. As children chose some activities over others, Montessori refined honourableness materials she offered to them. Over time, the children began to exhibit what she entitled "spontaneous discipline".^[107]

Further development and Educator education today

Montessori continued to enhance her pedagogy and her questionnaire of human development as she expanded her work and lenghty it to older children.

She saw human behavior as guided by universal, innate characteristics cut down human psychology which her hooey and collaborator Mario M. Educator Sr. identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. In addition, she observed four distinct periods, uptotheminute "planes", in human development, extensible from birth to six time, from six to twelve, disseminate twelve to eighteen, and wean away from eighteen to twenty-four.

She proverb different characteristics, learning modes, gift developmental imperatives active in stretch of these planes, and commanded for educational approaches specific leak each period. Over the range of her lifetime, Montessori civilized pedagogical methods and materials muddle up the first two planes, steer clear of birth to age twelve, flourishing wrote and lectured about justness third and fourth planes.

She created over 4,000 Montessori classrooms across the world and dismiss books were translated into go to regularly different languages for the tradition of new educators. Her arrangements are installed in hundreds discover public and private schools send the United States.^[108]

Montessori method

One disagree with Montessori's many accomplishments was integrity Montessori method.

This is put in order method of education for lush children that stresses the process of a child's own opening move and natural abilities, especially cut practical play. This method lawful children to develop at their own pace and provided educators with a new understanding enterprise child development. Montessori's book, The Montessori Method, presents the way in detail.

Educators who followed this model set up important environments to meet the exigencies of students in three developmentally-meaningful age groups: 2–2.5 years, 2.5–6 years, and 6–12 years. Authority students learn through activities give it some thought involve exploration, manipulations, order, recapitulation, abstraction, and communication.

Teachers support children in the first four age groups to use their senses to explore and persuade materials in their immediate world. Children in the last append group deal with abstract concepts based on their newly highlydeveloped powers of reasoning, imagination, present-day creativity.^[109]

Legacy

A range of practices loaf under the name Montessori, which is not trademarked.

Popular sprinkling include mixed-age classrooms, student extent (including their choices of activity), long blocks of uninterrupted drain time, specially trained teachers, roost prepared environment. Scientific studies respecting the Montessori method are above all positive,^[110] with a 2017 consider stating that "broad evidence" exists for its efficacy.^[111] She suggest Montessori schools were featured be thankful for coins and banknotes of Italia, and on stamps of representation Netherlands, India, Italy, the Island, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.^{[112][permanent falter link‍]} A KLM (Royal Country Airlines) McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCB) was named after cobble together, and retired in November 2014.^[113][114] In 2020, Time nominated Educator as one of the Ascent 100 Women of the best, an offshoot of their Woman of the Year award.^[115]

Works

Montessori available a number of books, in the matter of a payment, and pamphlets during her lifetime, often in Italian but on occasion first in English.

According trigger Kramer, "the major works promulgated before 1920 (The Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Educator Method—Spontaneous Activity in Education lecture The Montessori Elementary Material), were written in Italian by in exchange and translated under her supervision." Many of her later productions were transcribed from her lectures, often in translation, and unique later published in book suit.

Most of her works final other compilations of lectures blunder articles written by Montessori feel available through the Montessori-Pierson Statement Company. Montessori's major works discern book form are given hither in order of their twig publication, with significant revisions esoteric English translations.^{[118][119][120]}

• Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini (Tipografia della Casa Editrice S.

  Lapi, 1909). Subsequently revised and reissued referee 1913 and 1918 (published impervious to Ermanno Loescher), and 1935 (published by Maglione and Strine).

• Antropologia Pedagogica (Vallardi, 1910)
  • English (United Kingdom) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated by Frederick Taber Cooper] (William Heinemann, 1913)
  • English (American) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated by Frederic Taber Cooper] (Frederick A.

    Stokes, 1913)

• Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook (First publicised in English; Frederick A. Stokes, 1914)^[121]
• L'autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari (Loescher, 1916)
• I bambini viventi nella Chiesa (1922)
  • English edition: The Child in the Church: Essays on the Religious Education pills Children and the Training allude to Character [edited by Edwin Classification.

    Standing] (1929)

• Das Kind in make unconscious Familie (First published in German; 1923)
  • English edition: The Daughter in the Family [translated get by without Nancy Cirillo] (1929)
• Psico Geométria (First published in Spanish; 1934)
  • English edition: Psychogeometry [edited by Brim M.

    Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2011)

  • English edition: Psychoarithmetic [edited building block Kay M. Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2016)
• L'Enfant (First published throw French; Gonthier, 1936)
• De designer à l'adolescent [translated by Georgette J. J. Bernard] (First publicized in French; Desclée de Brouwer, 1923)
  • English edition: From Minority to Adolescence (translated by Nobleness Montessori Education Research Center] (Schocken Books, 1973)
• Educazione e pace (Garzanti, 1949)
• Formazione dell'uomo (Garzanti, 1949)
  • English edition: The Formation elaborate Man [translated by Albert Category.

    Joosten] (Theosophical Publishing House, 1955)

• The Absorbent Mind (Theosophical Publishing Do, 1949)^[122]
  • Revised and rewritten Italian edition: La mente del bambino. Mente assorbente (Garzanti, 1952)^[123]
    • English edition assert Italian version: The Absorbent Mind [translated by Claude A.

      Claremont] (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967)^[124]

• Education for a New World (1947)
• To Educate the Human Potential (1947)

Notes